Musical Theater and Theatrical Rock: An Annotated Bibliography

[This annotated bibliography was produced in 2012, in conjunction with Union Insitute and University's Ph.D. in Interdisciplinary Studies program, under the supervision of Dr. Elden Golden].

Bowie, D. (1972). The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. [vinyl record]. New York: RCA.

This concept album, produced in London by David Bowie and Ken Scott, is an important work of sustained narrative through popular rock music. As its back cover invited home listening (“To Be Played At Maximum Volume” was the work’s original liner notes), the immersive soundscape, and the retelling of a fictional alien musician’s ascension to celebrity is detailed through Bowie’s lyrics, as well as the band’s expressive control. This work has been regarded as important to critics of popular music as well as theatrical and ‘art rock’ paradigms.

Berger, D. & Peterson, R. (1975, April). Cycles in symbol production: The case in popular music. In American Sociological Review, 40, 158-173. Available from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2094343

David Berger and Richard Peterson assert a cyclical nature to the construction of cultural symbols. While sociological theories identified the construction of symbols across social and cultural realms, this article addresses and develops cultural, and specifically musical, symbolic epistemologies. The authors cite economic factors as having historically driven marketing and manufacturing in the music industry during the period 1948-1973, and compile data regarding the concentration of commercially-successful hit recordings among only a few recording firms (RCA Victor, Columbia, Decca, and Capitol are the four largest companies identified). The extent to which these firms produced music that resembled previously commercially-successful music is a characteristic identified by Berger and Peterson as “homogeneity.”

With the advent of iTunes and other forms of digital distribution, discussion of epistemology in popular music has been technologically refreshed since 1975. Still wildly relevant, however, is the authors’ point regarding the relationship between music publishing and distribution companies and the way in which an audience’s choices in listening material are limited by this relationship. Berger and Peterson’s discussion of rock music’s formative years is useful and critical, as they examine how marketing and symbolism in popular music was crafted by commercial success throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

 Brown, R. (1954). Sound. New York, NY: Longmans, Green and Co.

Writing an advanced text for use in conjunction with a physics course, University College of London senior physics lecturer R.C. Brown examines the physical properties of sound, through discussion of vibration and wave theory. Seeking to debunk “the notion that maximum amplitude always occurs when the applied and natural frequencies are equal” (p. v), Brown presents mathematical constructs to more clearly identify the reproduction and perception of sound. In the section “The Vibrations of Various Systems,” Brown discusses the vibration of specific instruments, including rods, air columns, open and closed resonance tubes, organ pipes, and ultrasonic devices, including piezo-electric devices. Written prior to the advent of transitorization, and popularization, of sound amplification systems, Brown’s work reflects a theoretical scrutiny to the production of sound; a final chapter identifies procedures for determining wave-length and frequency analysis in specific acoustic environments.

Burston, J. (1998). “Theater Space as Virtual Place: Audio Technology, the Reconfigured Singing Body, and the Megamusical.” Popular Music, 17, 2, 205-218. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://www.myunion.edu/Library-Login.aspx?url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/853456

Identifying three characteristics of “megamusicals,” including discussion of production models, Burston’s discussion highlights the aural characteristics of modern musical theater. Introduction—through radio broadcasts—of the microphone as critical technology in theater is important to Burston’s description of modern musical theater productions, citing Webber’s 1980 work Cats as the first work to fully utilize electronic amplification. Seeking to discern how audiences’ aesthetic experience in the theater relates to aural expectations set by FM radio, the author establishes theoretical groundwork for an individual’s participatory experience in modern musical theater. Discussion of volume, dynamics, and a new disembodied characteristic in theatrical audio—the amplification of the whisper is one critical example—conclude Burston’s important work regarding the construction of virtual space.

Citron, S. (2001). Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber: The New Musical. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Contextualizing the biographies of Stephen Sondheim and Andrew Lloyd-Webber, Citron identifies four characteristics for “the new musical” that are representative of the work of both composers. Detailing Sondheim’s work at Williams College in Massachusetts, and Lloyd-Webber’s difficult childhood (raised by his critical organist father) as formative periods in each composer’s life, Citron praises both for the production of inventive and refreshingly challenging new work. Jesus Christ Superstar is cited as one of Lloyd-Webber’s “finest achievements” (p. 149), specifically for its denial of show-tune musical convention and embrace of pop song elements. Citron cites critics in his discussion of Sondheim’s Company, calling it “even more of an anomaly” (p. 173), as a traditional theatrical musical. Citron’s historical discussion of the career of Sondheim and Lloyd-Webber is important to an understanding of who and how musical theater has been challenged and changed during the 20^th century.

Cox, C. and Warner, D., eds. (2008). Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music. New York, NY: Continuum International.

 In this comprehensive anthology of essays, Cox and Warner provide useful introductions to nine sections, including “Music in the Age of Electronic (Re)production,” “Experimental Musics,” “Modes of Listening,” and “DJ Culture.” Work from fifty-seven authors is presented, including essays by theorists (McLuhan, Barzun, Cage) and performers (Brian Eno, Glenn Gould, Ornette Coleman). Establishing an important shift in ontological and epistomological approaches to music during the 20^th century, Cox and Warner seek to describe a “spectrum of musical practices” across this anthology. The importance of repetition-based electronic sound, in a variety of musical environments, is noted—in hip-hop, reggae, improvisational music, techno, and elsewhere. Cox and Warner provide biographical information about each contributor; this massive and recent work is important to studies of how technology and participation continue to change the nature and definition of music in the 21^st century.

Davis, G. and Jones, R. (1989). Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.

With the advent and popularization of recording and sound technology during the 1980s, Yamaha Corporation, a producer of recording studio equipment as well as a variety of instruments, commissioned a specific and comprehensive reference manual, for use in understanding aspects of sound reinforcement. Twenty chapters are subdivided into sections with subtitles; over four hundred illustrations are included as well, and are separately indexed. Davis and Jones focus on specific elements of sound reproduction, including microphones, amplifiers, dynamic range control procedures, after providing theoretical examination of relative decibel level, loudness, absorption, and reverberation. Mathematical formulas at work in speaker construction, amplifier rating, and equalization, phase and crossover networks, are provided. While one of Davis and Jones’ later chapters identify a studio’s potential utilization of MIDI and sequencing, Yamaha’s production of this work, in conjunction with instrument and printed music distributor Hal Leonard, has become regarded as a famous effort in the reinforcement, amplification, and replication of sound, before a revolution of digital equipment dramatically changed both procedures and equipment.

DeWitt, H. (1983). Van Morrison: The Mystic’s Music. Fremont, CA: Horizon Books.

The personal and public perception of one’s art is the subject of DeWitt’s discussion of Van Morrison, beginning with the artist’s career as leader of the band Them, in 1964. Identifying through interviews and lyrical interpretation Morrison’s themes of Celtic spirituality and the songwriter’s prophetic stance, DeWitt describes Morrison’s shift to “a pastoral direction” of music in the mid-1970s. Both Morrison’s influence on contemporaries, as well as his tumultuous relationship with his record label, are detailed. DeWitt concludes by presenting a chronicle of Morrison’s career, cataloging both live and ‘bootleg’ recordings. While Morrison’s career would continue long after DeWitt’s discussion, this work illuminates the songwriter’s presentation of an epic mystical vision through the production of a complete album, including in what DeWitt considers the writer’s masterwork, 1968’s “Astral Weeks.”

Doyle, J. (Director). (2007). Company: A Musical Comedy [motion picture]. United States: Image Entertainment.

This filmed production of Sondheim’s original 1970 musical is staged minimally, as if in cabaret, and features Raul Esparza and Angel Desai in lead roles; staging was by Lonny Price, a television  producer. Notable for its modernization of Sondheim’s musical themes and orchestration, this DVD release followed the musical’s receiving a Tony Award in 2007 for Best Revival. The social commentary, including characterization of the work’s setting, Manhattan, remains relevant decades following its inception.

Einsenberg, E. (1987). The Recording Angel: Explorations in Phonography. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Through introductions to each chapter that cite narratives of record collectors, Eisenberg’s discussion of the commoditization of recorded music, offering aesthetic and capitalist context for individuals’ experience collecting and listening to recordings. Evolution in forms of phonography are described; Eisenberg traces physical aspects of music reproduction in the home, noting socioeconomic aspects of sheet music distribution, concert attendance, “musical snobbery,” and the advent of the widespread availability of recordings. In chapter eight, Eisenberg identifies the “self-produced” recording artist as most prevalent in modern music; this trend was illustrated by artists such as Stevie Wonder and Frank Zappa at the time of Eisenberg’s writing, but has only continued to grow exponentially, alongside the popularization of home recording technology and virtual distribution methods. This work has become a seminal text in the psychology and philosophy of recorded audio; its latest edition was printed in 2005 by Yale University Press.  

Firesign Theater, The. (2010). Duke of Madness Motors: the Complete “Dear Friends” Radio Era 1970-1972. [DVD and book]. Canada: Seeland.

Compiling seventy-five hours of improvised radio broadcasts on an FM station, this book and DVD compiles and provides cultural and historical context for the work of The Firesign Theater, an improvisational comedy group based in California. Having entertained success through major-label releases in the late 1960s, Peter Bergman, David Ossman, Philip Proctor, and Philip Austin produced a radio program weekly, for two years; the absurdist scripts parodied theater and radio play, dialogue and language, a “freeform sandbox” of both linear and abstract interactions. The book contains essays by each member regarding the creative process and technique of the productions. The work of the Firesign Theater remains unparalleled in its presentation of surreal narrative produced by a limited cast.

Fordin, H. (1974). Vocal Selections from “That’s Entertainment.” New York, NY: Big Three Music Corp.

This collection features over sixty songs featured in the 1974 film “That’s Entertainment,” a compilation of musicals filmed by MGM studios filmed during the 1930s and 1940s. Fordin provides an ample introduction to and context for the printed musical material, through a description of the studio’s leadership, the canon of talented performers who appeared in the original films, and the legendary music department at work in the studio at the time. This volume presents the piano score and vocal, as well as guitar chord symbols, for each song—including selections form 1939’s “The Wizard of Oz,” the 1949 film “American in Paris,” and 1941’s “Singin’ in the Rain.” The period from which these compositions emerge remains one of the most dynamic in the history of American musical performance captured on film.

Harris, J. (1993). Philosophy at 33 1/3 rpm: Themes of Classic Rock Music. Chicago, IL: Open Court.

Harris’ exploration of philosophical themes in popular rock music lyrics moves thematically, not chronologically, seeking commonalities. While this work cites a variety of philosophers as well as many lyrics and cultural events taking place during the 1960s and 1970s, Harris is dismissive of the music of the 1950s, critical of record companies’ marketing strategies as stifling artists’ creativity. While chapters such as “Too Old to Rock and Roll, Too Young to Die,” “The Theology of Rock,” “The Greening of Rock Music,” and “Rock Music and Alienation” discuss specific issues of sociology, epistemology, and philosophy, Harris’ progression does not appear systematic; Plato, Aristotle, Kant, and others are cited in comparison to, but not necessarily in complement of, themes present in classic rock lyrics. Harris exalts Pink Floyd’s “Dark Side of the Moon” (1972) as an expression of how the form of an extended recording embraces a sustained theoretical discussion—in the Floyd album, an embrace of radical antipsychiatry. While Harris’ work was criticized in the Library Journal as an “overly intellectualized study of rock that misses the emotionalism of the music” (Szatmary, 1994), this discussion remains important in the continuing academic study of popular culture and music.

Heerman, V. (director). (1930). Animal Crackers [motion picture]. United States: Paramount.

This popular comedy film features the four Marx Brothers, in an adaptation of an original Broadway production by the same name, written by George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind. With original songs and musical themes for specific characters, songwriters Harry Ruby and Bert Kalmar added additional musical score; the Marx Brothers, following their popularity from 1929’s The Cocoanuts, contributed comedy material, as well as original musical score (Chico’s piano composition “I’m Daffy Over You” would be played by Harpo on the harp in a later film). The plot satirizes Groucho’s character Captain Spaulding, an African explorer whose heralded return from an expedition; the Brothers employ dramatic and comedic asides to the camera, and establish unprecedented conventions of cinematic music and narrative.

Jones, J. (2003). Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press.

Jones’ criticism of musical theater, and its abilities to represent individuals, is a sweeping accomplishment of theory and history. Through chronological explanation of the evolution of popular musicals on stage, as well as in film and recording, Jones details each work, its impact and history, as well as its relevance to his larger narrative of theater criticism. A dialogue develops between the attendees and performers of specific works; one may discover a host of relationships and trends through the comprehensive assessment provided. This work is regarded as critical to those seeking to understand the dynamics of representation at work in the production and dissemination of creative works of theatrical and musical expression.

Kalmar, B. and Ruby, H. (1936). The Kalmar Ruby Songbook. New York, NY: Random House.

Compiling eight handwritten scores of songs featured in Vaudeville, Broadway, and early Hollywood productions, this work identifies and provides context for the work of songwriters Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby. With commentaries by Irving Berlin, Groucho Marx, Moss Hart, Robert Benchley and others, transition of musical compositions across venues of performance—including from stage to film—remains a prominent theme. While later biographies and study of the importance of Kalmar and Ruby’s compositions may provide a more broad context, this work is important for its historical specificity: the illumination and discussion of Captain Spaulding’s recurring motif, for example, found in the Marx Brothers’ early production Animal Crackers, is critical and enlightening, due in part to this book’s age. Kalmar and Ruby’s success as a songwriting team for stage and film lasted until Kalmar’s death in 1947.

Lomax, J. and Lomax, A. (1934). American Ballads and Folk Songs. New York, NY: Macmillan.

Following popularity surrounding the publication of his Cowboy Songs in 1910, John Lomax worked with his brother to compile nearly two hundred songs from wax records, aluminum and celluloid records, singing from different members of their family, located across five states, and from previously published collections. As well, the authors toured universities in the early 1930s, seeking American folk songs. In contextualizing paragraphs, the authors cross-reference the sources of melodies and lyrics. Each song’s melody is written in musical score, without accompaniment. This collection is remarkable for its African-American spirituals and songs, collected from a variety of southern communities, as well as state farms and prisons. Interviews with street performers, including Lead Belly (p. 117), help make this resource exhaustive and comprehensive. This work is an important collection of folk songs, the result of great effort in folk musicology in the early 20^th century.

Magee, M. (2004). Emancipating Pragmatism: Emerson, Jazz, and Experimental Writing. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.

Beginning with a discussion of historical subjectivity and the importance of symbolic action in democratic society, Magee uses Emerson to introduce aesthetic and artistic value of what Dewey called a “demand for variety” (as cited by Magee, p. 20). Viewing Emerson’s work as challenging the reader on a new participatory and collaborative level, Magee examines Ralph Ellison’s fiction as providing an important 20^th century example, of an emancipated voice that gained social value, working against “unantagonized history” (p. 109). In his third section Magee cites Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and John O’Hara’s work in jazz clubs in Greenwich Village in the 1950s, as further practice of a new theoretical grounding for a uniquely American embrace of language. The intersection of identity, participatory democracy, and aesthetic, public use of language is critical to modern theories of communication, media, and human relationships.

Miller, S. (2000). Deconstructing Harold Hill: An Insider’s Guide to Musical Theatre. Portsmouth NH: Heinemann.

This survey of musical theater includes Miller’s analysis of a number of popular works of musical theater, including March of the Falsettos, Ragtime, and Passion. The author provides detailed history of each, as well as an “overture” of introduction. Miller details characters’ motivations and interior monologues, and how audience members may come to relate or empathize with situations and circumstances. This work is most useful to producers, seeking to direct performers, and describe emotive qualities to be portrayed onstage.

Miller, S. (2003). Let the Sun Shine In: The Genius of Hair. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Scott Miller’s contextualization for Hair is personal and useful: his production company had completed its run of the musical days prior to September 11, 2001. In this history and description of the pioneering work of representation and participatory theater, Miller regards producers’ choices carefully; the popularization of the musical, through recordings and later film, represent the work’s accessibility and relevance, beyond the scope of its original narrative. Hair’ s topical nature has, and will likely continue, to generate much criticism. For this, Miller’s work serves as a clear and fair assessment of the work’s viability and legacy.

Miller, S. (2011). Sex, Drugs, Rock & Roll, and Musicals. Hanover, NH: Northeastern University Press.

Scott Miller identifies trends in cultural criticism through the genre of musical theater, and how audience demographics and writers’ and producers’ intentions have been influenced by changes in society. Extending themes established in his earlier works, Miller identifies ten modern works of musical film and stage—including Lippa’s The Wild Party, Webber and Rice’s Jesus Christ Superstar, and the film The Rocky Horror Picture Show­—as encapsulating a new manifestations of performance and of the relationship between the creators of a musical production, seeking a renewal of identity within their audiences. The extent to which musical theater may allow the dismantling of expressive individuals, and the realm of enlivened fantasy is critical to Miller’s analysis of each work, and his concluding summation. Miller’s discussion of the maturation of musical theater is important to a contextualization of the genre’s role in describing modern dynamics of artistic power and representation. With this important collection of theater criticism, Miller continues to establish both his reputation as a theater critic as well as the creative expressive genre he seeks to define.

Paradiso, J. (1998). “The Brain Opera Technology: New Instruments and Gestural Sensors for Musical Interaction and Performance.” Cambridge, MA: MIT Media Laboratory. Retrieved from http://resenv.media.mit.edu/pubs/papers/98_3_JNMR_Brain_Opera.pdf

Paradiso’s paper documents and examines the Brain Opera, a “touring participatory electronic musical installation” that opened after the first Lincoln Center Festival in July of 1996. This musical and physical environment, constructed beneath a gridwork of trusses, encapsulated participants in sound and physical sensation. A variety of triggers, motion sensors, and interactive fields created an original music, built of users’ motions. Paradiso describes the purpose of the Brain Opera to replicate an environment “inspired by the way our minds congeal fragmented experiences into rational thought” (p. 3); the result of this MIT project is described as having posed a challenge to interactivity and the gratification that may or may not come from the fragmentation of our visceral and musical experience.

Russell, K. (director). (1975). Tommy [film]. United States: Columbia Pictures.

Utilizing The Who’s 1969 studio recording of the same name, producers Ken Russell and Robert Stigwood worked with composer Pete Townshend to properly and fully adapt the original album (for which Townshend won a Grammy) as a motion picture. Personalities, including Tina Turner, Jack Nicholson, and others were depicted in roles from Townshend’s original narrative. The film, produced in Great Britain, was a success financially, and continued to innovate the relationship of film and sustained musical works of “rock opera” and popular music composition.

Sandburg, C. (1955). The American Songbag. New York, NY: Harvest/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Seeking to help complete the “song history of America” (p. vii), poet Carl Sandburg collected nearly three hundred folk songs into thematic sections, including “Dramas and Portraits,” “Pioneer Memories,” and “The Great Open Spaces.” Sandburg provides ample contextualization for each song, detailing its region of origin, publication history, and lyrical interpretation. While each song is transcribed in musical score with piano accompaniment, the author’s chapter of introduction discusses problems in dialectical interpretation of lyrics, as well as promotes the establishment of a relevant, American canon of folk music—those songs beyond classification, and are available for participants’ revision and new use. Sandburg’s collection provides critical contextualization of music, outside of music produced specifically for public performance.

Seeger, R. (1948). American Folk Songs for Children. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Described as “no sudden notion” in Carl Sandburg’s introduction, Ruth Seeger’s collection of songs provides extensive pedagogical and theoretical foundation for the use of music with children. Identifying contexts for linguistic activities such as tone play and linguistic repetition, Seeger describes folk songs as evolving, changing, and ever-revised by the participants in the song. Over one hundred songs are presented in musical score, alongside additional verses and brief italicized introductions by the author. First published in 1948, Seeger’s collection and contextualization remains a seminal work in pedagogical strategies at work in useful and engaging music education.

Schafer, R. (1994). The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books.

Defining the term ‘soundscape’ to include both natural, non-human elements as well as the complex human sounds that populate one of our senses, Schafer’s discussion proceeds historically through the Industrial Revolution and the “Electric Revolution,” a section introduced by a passage from Thomas More’s Utopia. A classification of sound is presented, based upon acoustic, psychoacoustic, semiotic and aesthetic criteria; discussion of the interplay of frequency, volume, dynamics, and perception aid Schafer in further defining modern sonography. In a chapter titled “Noise,” Schafer examines local and regional customs, practices, and laws regarding unwanted sound; across data collected in the early 1970s, individuals’ complaints regarding unwanted background noise establish traffic and air conditioning units are key components of our modern “soundscape.” Schafer’s discussion ends with metaphysical conclusions, noting the importance of silence to any examination of sound.

Sondheim, S. (1970). Company [audio recording]. United States: Sony Classics.

This audio recording features the cast of the first Broadway production of Steven Sondheim’s 1970 work. Originally released on vinyl and in 1999 on Sony’s Broadway Masterworks label, this audio CD features Dean Jones and Elaine Stritch in the lead roles of Bobby and Joanne. This musical continues to garner acclaim, for its deconstruction of traditional narrative in the genre; rather, characters speak independently and together, questioning the venue of theater’s power of representation and musical presentation. Stephen Sondheim remains one of musical theater’s preeminent composers; productions of Company remain common off-Broadway.

Townshend, P. (1969). Tommy [audio recording]. London: Polydor.

Recorded in late 1968 and early 1969 by The Who at IBC Studios in London, Tommy was conceived of and composed by guitarist Pete Townshend, and has been hailed as a critical work in the redefinition of popular music’s ability to maintain a sustained discussion of socially-relevant themes; here, Townshend’s work renders a character—Tommy—as impaired, following his witnessing his mother’s infidelity to his father. Characters, including the Acid Queen, Tommy himself, and a cruel doctor are each ascribed specific musical themes. The Who’s original recording of Tommy was released to critical success in 1969, and film and stage adaptations soon followed; revivals of the work continue today both on Broadway and London’s West End, rendering the musical relevant and still unique.

Webber, A. and Rice, T. (1970). Jesus Christ Superstar [audio recording]. Los Angeles: MCA/Universal.

Conceived by composer Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyricist Tim Rice, this studio recording—defined by some as a concept album, in the modern rock tradition— was the first manifestation of this popular musical work. While adaptations for stage and film would follow, this recording was the result of collaboration between an instrumental ensemble and a diversity of vocal talent; the retelling of the Christ narrative has been described as loosely following the Gnostic texts, and was subject to much criticism for its exclusion of the resurrection. This work has been revived in film (1971) and on Broadway numerous times; a March 2012 revival on Broadway is forthcoming.  

Wollman, E. (2009). The Theater Will Rock: A History of the Rock Musical, from Hair to Hedwig. Ann Arbor MI: University of Michigan Press.

Elizabeth Wollman’s chronological discussion of popular rock music and its influence on musicals is an important work of contextualization. Tracing the relationship between these creative genres from Hair (“and its imitators,” as her third chapter is titled), Wollman is keen to observe how the influence of popular and rock musics changed and helped shape future productions of musical theater. Describing the influence of Pink Floyd’s theatrical Dark Side of the Moon, as well as their film soundtrack works, Wollman conceives of a musical theater in which both the representational, absurd, and outright musical may exist: through chronological narrative, Wollman notes popular record producers and their influence on the creation of theatrical recordings. Focused on the late 1960s through the 1970s, including the popularization of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Wollman’s history is a useful commentary and insightful reference.